Interest groups lie at the heart of the American political system. National interest groups ilrst appeared in the 1830's. Since then, diverse interest groups have come into being. From I960 to 2009, the number of interest group representatives registered in Washington increased from fewer than 500 to 12,500. Their involvement in many political issues at different levels makes interest groups a pervasive political force. In addition to enhancing the democratic process, they increase public awareness about in^>oitant issues, help frame the public agenda, and o ften monitor programs to guarantee effective implementation. At the same dme, however, interest groups can pose problems for a democratic society.

What Are Interest Groups?

A political interest group is any organized group of individuals who share one or more common policy goals and seek to influence government's policy-making in its favor. Interest groups may also be referred to as special interests, pressure groups, organized interests or lobbies. Such groups as the National Rifle Association, the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, and the American Association of Retired Persons all fit this definition. In governments they may be active at the national, state, or local level, ardculadng their shared views of their supporters before policy-makers.

M^jor Interest Groups in Washington

Interest groups generally can be characterized by the kinds of interests they represent or the number of issues in which they arc involved. Different in size and structure, interest groups pursue varying objectives. There arc thousands of officially registered lobbying groups in Washington. The following section deals with the most common types of interest groups.

Economic Interest Groups

Economic interest groups are a special type of interest group: their primary purpose is to promote the economic interests of their members. Traditionally, economic organizations have dominated intercst-group politics in Washington. Economic interests play a major role in national policy-making. Business, professional, labor, and agricultural interest groups have been considered the "big four" of economic interest groups.

• Business Organizations and Trade Assodadons

Business interests arc represented first of all by large organizations, such as the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, representing thousands of local chambers of commerce across the nation; the Business Roundtable, representing the national^ largest corporations; and the National Federation of Independent Businesses, representing small business. Specific business interests are also represented by thousands of trade associations. These associations can closely monitor the interests of thcir specialized memberships. Among the most powerful of these associations are the American Bankers Association, the American Gas Association, and the American Iron and Steel Institute. In addition, many individual corporations achieve representation in Washington by opening their own lobbying offices or by hiring experienced professional lobbying firms. The concerns of business and trade assodadons depend on the business in question and on the political climate. Tax laws, government subsidies, antitrust laws, tariffs on imported goods, and consumer product and environmental regulations 一 all may affect the cost of doing business. These associations represent the collective interests of corporate Amcrica.

• Professional Associations

Professional associations compete with business and trade organizations in lobbying influence. The American Bar Association, the American Medical Association, and the National Education Association arc three of the most influential groups in Washington.

• Labor Organizations

Labor organizations have lost strength over the last several decades. The percentage of work, force belonging to unions has declined primarily as a result of changes in the economy: rapid growth of professional, finance, and scrvicc employment, where unions are weak; and slow growth of key industries such as mining, steel production，and automobile manufacturing, where unions are strong. Nevertheless, labor organizations arc still a potent force in the political system and represent a vast segment of society. The American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO), a federation of sixty-ei^it separate labor unions, has approximately 13 million members and has represented the interests of labor in Washington. The AFL-CIO has long maintained a large lobbying staff in Washington, and it provides both financial contributions and campaign services for members of Congress it favors.

• Agricoltoral Interest Groups

Farmers make up less than 3 percent of the working population of the United States，but they arc a relatively strong economic force in contemporary American politics. Two of the nation’s largest farming interest groups are the American Farm Bureau Federation (AFBF) and the National Farmers Union (NFU). The AFBF, which represents the owners of large farms, generally opposes federal regulation of agriculture. The smaller NFU includes many low-income farmers and favors federally supported and guaranteed farm loans and other government intervention.

Public Interest Groups

Public interest groups do not tend to be particularly motivated by the desire to achicvc goals that would benefit their own members. They claim to represent broad classes of people 一 consumers, voters, or the public as a whole. Being organizations that seek a collective good, they perceive themselves as balancing the ^selfish” interests of business organizations, trade associations, unions, and other “spcdal’, interests. These groups have always tried to represent what they see as the public’s interests on such issues as civil limits, consumer protection, and environmental regulation. Today groups such as Common Cause, Public Citizen, the Consumer Federation of America, peace groups, and groups that speak out for those who cannot (such as children，the mentally ill, or animals) are examples of public interest groups.

Single-Issue Groups

Many of the economic and public interest groups are multi-issue groups; that is, they arc concerned with more than just a single issue. For example, the AFL-CIO was formed to represent die interests of organized labor. It is also concerned with health care, Social Security, and civil rights. Similarly, although the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) is interested primarily in race relations, it is also involved in other areas, including education, the criminal justice system, housing, and welfare rights一all areas of potential concern to its members.

Single-issue groups differ from multi-issue groups in both the range and the intensity of their interests. They attract the support of individuals with a strong commitment to a single cause. No other issues really matter to them. Concentration on one area generally lead to greater zeal in a group’s lobbying efTorts. People single—mindedly pursue all kinds of interests. Probably the most visible single-issue groups today are those organized on either side of the abortion and gun control debates. The National Abortion Ri^its Action League, the National Right-to-Life Committee, the National Rifle Association (opposed to gun control) and Mothers Against Drunk Driving, for example, can be classified as single-issue groups.

What Do Interest Groups Do?

Interest groups today are involved in diversified activities’ including lobbying all three branches of government, sdrring up grassroots efforts for policy change, and all sorts of protest activities. And many are actively engaged in the campaign process.

Lobbying

Most interest groups put lobbying at the top of their agendas. Active groups use lobbying to make their interests heard and understood by those who are in a position to cause change in governmental policies. They try to convince key governmental decision makers and the public of the correctness of their positions.

Depending on the type of group, lobbying can take many forms. It plays an important role in Congress, the executive branch, the courts and so on. Almost all interest groups lobby by testifying at hearings and contacting legislators. Groups also provide information that decision makers might not have the rime, opportunity, or interest to gather on their own. Of course, the information these groups provide is designed to present the group’s position in a favorable li^it Once an interest group proves itself as source of dependable infonnadon, it has easier access to officials. Apart from presenting research or technical information, lobbyists discuss the impact of a bill on national interests as well as on a representative’s home district. Whenever they can, interest groups also mobilize the folks at home to write and call members of Congress to stress the importance of particular issues to the district, which is referred to as grassroots lobbying.

Increasing，lobbying is a professional, full-dme occupation. Many lobbyists are lawyers and former members of the executive branch and Congress. Lobbyists even draft legislation, write speeches, and help plan legislative strategy. For most lobbyists, however, presenting research results or technical information to public officials is the most important and dme -consuming part of their job.

Protest Activities

Interest groups also engage in protests or demonstrations as a form of “lobbying” public opinion or decision makers. During the dvil rights movement, Martin Luther King, and his followers frequently resorted to non-violent marches co draw attention to the plight of African Americans in the South. These forms of organized group activity were legal, with proper permits obtained from government officials. The protesters who tried to stop the freedom marchers, however, were engaging in illegal protest activity,another form of activity sometimes used by interest groups.

Involvement in Campaigns and Elections

In addition to trying to achieve their goals throu^hi the conventional and unconventional forms of lobbying and protest activity, many interest groups also bccome involved more directly in electoral process. Interest groups, for example, rate candidates, make campaign endorsements, provide financial support, and sometimes even create political parties.

Interest Groups: a Benefit or an Evil?

Interest groups were originated to protect economic interests, to advance social movements, and to seek government benefits. The interest-group system supplements the electoral system as a form of democratic representation. While the electoral system is designed to respond to broad, nuyority preferences, the interest-group system represents narrower，minority interests in economic, professional, ideological, religious, racial, and gender fields.

What justifies the existence of interest groups in a democratic government is their role in making members of the executive and legislative branches of government more aware of the needs and concerns of various segments of the population. Almost every American has a lobby. Many people join together in these groups to promote their own economic well-being and to effect political and social change. Their perspectives are narrower and their demands more precise than those of social movements or political parties. Thus issues are managed in great detail and with considerable expertise by interest groups. Meanwhile, interest groups enhance political participation by motivating like-minded individuals to work toward a common goal. And competition among groups ensures no sin^e group dominates the system.

For those reasons, many political observers argue that interest groups are a necessary part of the American political system even though these organizations may lack any officially recognized status. Nevertheless, critics warn that interest groups do distort the democratic process. Interest groups may monopolize power and restrict individual participation in politics rather than enhance it, mainly because their membership is dearly biased toward the upper half of the socioeconomic ladder. The groups that have the most power in Washington are dominated by business and professional lobbies working on economic issues that benefit the already advantaged in society. The poor, the young, and the elderly have much less representation. Thus the haves gain more, while the have-nots remain unrepresented or underrepresented by interest groups. Therefore, interest groups are not usually democratically governed, nor are their members representative of the general population. Interest groups can also distort the policymaking process because the growing power of special interests, when combined with the declining power of parties and the fragmentation of government，may lead to paralysis in policy making. The general public interest may be lost in the conflicting claims of special interests.